Latin verbal punctuation
When reading a manuscript, an ancient or medieval reader usually did not have the benefit of capitalization and punctuation, as we do when reading a critically edited text. Instead, Latin used certain adverbs and conjunctions as punctuation. The following are examples of words used as punctuation, with context to show when they do and do not need to be translated on an exam.
1. “But, however, truly” – vero, autem, at
These words usually show that there is a new sentence in opposition to the previous statement, but they can also be simple punctuation, completely removed from their literal meanings.
a. vero – “but, surely, truly”
i. Astronomia…ortus, obitus, motusque siderum continet. Astrologia vero partim naturalis, partim superstitiosa est. (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae)
Here vero signals both the new sentence after continet, and opposition to the previous one. It could be translated “but”, “however”, or “on the other hand”.
Astronomy deals with…the rising, setting, and movements of the stars. Astrology, on the other hand, is partly science, partly superstition.
ii. Die vero Conversionis sancti Pauli… (Matthew Paris, Historia Anglorum)
Here vero simply shows that the author has turned to a new subject. It is not necessary to translate it.
On the feast of
the Conversion of
b. autem – “but, however”
i.
Pinguis erat supra modum…ceteras autem corporis partes, manu traxerat natura
laetior benigniore…
(William of
Here there is opposition between the two sentences, and autem should be translated.
He was excessively fat…but a happier nature had framed the other parts of his body with a kinder hand...
ii. Dixit beatus Franciscus: ‘Quis est ille qui dixit: “Morior”?’ Ille autem frater dixit: ‘Ego sum.’ (Legenda trium sociorum)
Here autem signals that a new person is speaking. There is no opposition, and the literal meaning is completely absent.
Blessed Francis said: “Who is it who said, ‘I am dying’?” The monk said: “I am.”
c. at – “but”
i. Grimoalt…iter Neapolim agreditur, exercitumque post se accelerare iubet. At ubi iuxta memoratam perapplicuit urbem…populus exivit in praelium. (Erchempert, Historia Langobardorum)
Here at is in opposition to the previous statement, and would need to be translated “but.”
Grimoald...went
to
ii. Ille vero ianuam aperuit…et ait: “Qualis es tu?" At ille: "Iovinianus sum imperator…” (Gesta Romanorum)
In this case, at, like autem, can distinguish one speaker from another, completely removed from its literal meaning.
He opened the gate and said:
"Who are you?" [The other man responded] "I am Emperor Jovinianus."
2. “For, indeed” – enim, nam, quidem
These are used to affirm a previous statement. It would never be wrong to translate them, but they can sound stitled and archaic in English.
i. Silent enim leges inter arma. (Cicero, Pro Milone)
The laws are [indeed] silent during times of war.
ii.
Augustinus… summus phylosophus et rhetor luculentissimus
haberetur.
Augustine was considered the greatest philosopher and most brilliant rhetorician. [For] He was able to read the books of Aristotle, and all the other books of the liberal arts.
iii. Terra quidem illa Orientalis…quae Mongal nominatur… (Johannes de Plano Carpini, Libellus Hstoricus)
[Indeed] That
eastern land...which is called
3. “Thus, therefore” – igitur, sic, ita, itaque, ergo, ideo
These words also affirm the previous statement or show that the next statement logically follows the first. They all mean “thus” or “therefore”, and can be translated that way, but they also serve as punctuation.
i. Omnes igitur quotquot erant in ecclesia…(Matthew Paris, Historia Anglorum)
[Therefore] Everyone, however many were in the church...
ii. Et sic, quanto plus appropinquat tanto plus contremisco et in majore sum timore. (William of Pagula, Speculum regis)
[And therefore] The more he approaches, the more I tremble...
iii. Et his ita compositis ad urbem Vangionum iter direxit. (Nithard, Historiae)
[Therefore]
When these things were done, he went to the city of
iv. Sciatis itaque quod a multis retro diebus amoris vestri me sagitta percussit. (Andreas Capellanus, De amore)
[Therefore] You should know that the arrow of your love pierced me many days ago.
v. Ergo post mortem anima separata non poterit intelligere. (Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae)
[Therefore] After death the soul, separated [from the body], will not be able to understand.
vi. Statutum ideo omnique procul dubio a me decretum fuit, tres in caelis adesse Stellas vagantes circa Iovem… (Galileo, Siderius Nuncius)
[Therefore] The notion was decided by me beyond all doubt, that there are three wandering stars present in the sky around Jupiter...
4. “And” – et
As a simple conjunction, et and its counterpart atque/ac should almost always be translated. However, it is common in medieval Latin to use et to connect a very long series of statements which, in English, would be better translated with punctuation and/or separate sentences.
i. Et vituperavit eum, propterea quod concupierat regnum eius, et abstulit filiam suam, et dedit eam Demetrio, et alienavit se ab Alexandro, et manifestae sunt inimicitiae eius. (1 Maccabees 11:11-12)
[And] he criticized him, because he had desired his kingdom. [And] He took his daughter away, and gave her to Demetrius. [And] He alienated himself from Alexander, and his hostility was revealed.
5. Question particles – num, nonne, numquid
These generally cannot be literally translated into English. They signify that the sentence is a question, where in English we use a question mark and different syntax. They also let the reader know what to expect as an answer: nonne expects an affirmative answer, and num a negative.
i. Num fuerat satis ad tui correptionem quod, per primam prevaricationem eluminata, delitiarum exulabas a patria? (Dante, De vulgari eloquentia)
Was it not enough to reprove you that, blinded by your first transgression, you were exiled from the homeland of your delights? [Implies that no, it was not enough]
ii. Nonne ipse, Domnine, vides, quia hac ipsa concessione maximam partem operi demas? (Boccaccio, Genealogia deorum gentilium)
Do you see, Domninus, that by this admission you take the greatest part away from this work? [Implies that yes, he sees]
iii. Quae tibi causa fugae? Numquid flagra? Nulla dabantur. (Marbod of Reims, De ornamentis verborum)
What is the cause of your flight? Was it a scourging? None was given.
6. Relative clauses – quod
Sometimes a relative clause in Latin signifies a new thought, and is punctuated as a new sentence. In English a relative clause would be ungrammatical, so the Latin quod, usually meaning “which”, should be translated as “this”.
i. Hanc epistolam afferentes homines illius precepit eam legere coram suis militibus. Quod audientes sui milites tristati sunt. (Leo of Naples, Historia de preliis Alexandri Magni)
He ordered the men, who were carrying this letter, to read it to his troops. When they heard this the troops were sad.