Franklin
Can I be Frank?
Class in Medieval England
by Caitlin Fralick
Prior to the thirteenth century, the division
of land in England was fairly standard: The king controlled
the land, and he would assign responsibility thereof
to noble lords. But as population increased and agricultural
demands became greater, new options were required (Harding
36). Power over the land would become more spread out,
and people not of noble birth would be given the chance
for power.
One of the new positions in the power structure was
the franklin. Simply put, the franklin is a free landowner
not of noble birth. The root of this title, "franc,"
comes from the Anglo-Latin word, francolanus, meaning
"held without dues," and consequently, free
("franklin," n.1, OED). Free is a somewhat
loaded term, as he was by no means as liberated as today’s
lower middle class. In fact, the franklin was probably
closer to the peasant than to the nobility. He was still
simply a villager, but he held a larger area of land
than the peasants, usually between thirty and sixty
acres. The notion of his "freedom" came from
the fact that he had free tenure of the land once he
swore fealty to the king. Depending on the terms of
his agreement, the franklin’s power over his land
would remain in his family line until that line failed
to produce a direct male heir (this was called a fee
tail) or until his lineal and collateral heirs ran out
(a fee simple) (Harding 47). Furthermore, the franklin
could represent himself before the king’s courts:
He could plead against a lord who practised irregular
distraint (the seizure of someone’s property in
order to pay for rent owed) and could also serve as
a justice or plaintiff before the Justice of the Peace
(an order of knights appointed by the King) for his
area. These limited freedoms set the franklin apart
from the peasants who were subject to the will of their
lord in all their actions. In fact, the franklin could
employ servants, so he was not at the bottom of the
social chain at all (48). He was free to tend to his
land as he wished and could come and go as he pleased.
There were instances which could cause
the franklin to lose his power. If he wasted woodland
in his possession, or abused the farmland in any way,
he could be distrained, which means his land would be
taken away (50). In light of this fact, one has to wonder
just how free the franklin was, especially if one remembers
that he still owed fealty to lords and the king. Nonetheless,
the position was symbolic of a changing attitude toward
the notion that only the nobility could control land.
Many economic historians call the franklin an early
indication of capitalist society. To these thinkers
he embodies the idea of the self-made man rather than
the wealth of inheritance. Further, his lifestyle holds
material profit, not active service to God and King,
as paramount (Olson 156). The social hierarchy that
had long kept the world in order was beginning to spread
outward, instead of upward. The franklin was one of
a number of self-made gentry positions who used their
assets to further their own livelihood instead of simply
accepting their low station in life.
This aspect of the franklin is especially
evident in Chaucer’s depiction of his position.
According to Paul A. Olson, the Franklin, the Miller,
and the Wife of Bath represent a growing commercial
group who choose material wealth over service and subordination,
choosing secular contemplation over spiritual perfection.
They demonstrate the ability to act decisively without
the imposition of tyranny or sorrow, eliminating suffering
through tolerance and generosity (158). With the growth
of the commercial, capitalist mentality came the realization
that power could be spread out among many people.
Not surprisingly, this new station was
regarded with much ambivalence. The nobility was understandably
upset at the idea of their inherited wealth being tampered
with. Some of this ambivalence is certainly evident
in the Canterbury Tales, with what some critics consider
a detrimental attitude toward the Franklin and his tale.
Olson believes that Chaucer’s Franklin is somewhat
one-sided. He does not speak of any of the problems
with his position, such as the complexity of oaths and
obligation, but is instead more concerned with the pursuit
of Epicurean ideals that are at the most physical end
of the material spectrum (159). Chaucer’s Franklin
appears to be too caught up in the present moment to
consider his future, certainly an indication of his
unworthiness as a landowner.
At the same time, the Franklin opens the reader’s
eyes to the manners in which divine wisdom might manifest
itself materially, how we might embrace our physical
lives and live practically and happily at once. While
he may be naïve in his aspirations, he nonetheless
subverts social norms and shows us the power of the
individual to make his own fortune.
Works Cited
Harding, Alan. England in the Thirteenth
Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1993.
Olson, Paul A. The Canterbury Tales
And the Good Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1986.
"frank." Simpson, J.A. and E.S.C.
Weiner, Eds. Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd
ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online. Oxford
University Press. 4 February, 2003.
"franklin." Simpson, J.A. and
E.S.C. Weiner, Eds. Oxford English Dictionary.
2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online.
Oxford University Press.
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Science
by Kirk Middleton
The following presentation will focus on the inventions
that were created during the Middle Ages that not only
revolutionized Western Europe’s economical and
demographic growth but also changed the way in which
people would look at natural sciences. Although there
were numerous inventions that could be argued as having
a significant impact on Western Europe’s evolution,
for the sake of condensing so much information the focal
point of this presentation will view the following three
inventions:
1. Optics & Eyeglasses
2. Compass
3. Mechanical Clock
Optics & Eyeglasses:
During the Middle Ages, knowledge of matters that refer
to optics was very limited. In fact the only source
that provided anything even approaching a systematic
account of light color, and vision was the first half
of Plato’s Timaeus. Plato argued that visual fire
emanating from the observer’s eye coalesces with
daylight to form an optical medium capable of transmitting
the motions of external bodies to the soul, where they
result in visual sensation. Scholars in the Middle Ages
contributed very little to the science of optics. In
comparison to the Islamic nations (and even the Greeks),
their knowledge in optics was exceedingly primitive.
This would all change in the late twelfth and early
thirteenth century as translations by Constantine the
African provided Christian societies with the most current
optical literature written by the Greeks and Islam.
The first impact of the newly translated material is
perceptible in the writings of Robert Grosseteste ("Bighead"
1168-1253), who was a lecturer and chancellor at Oxford
University and later bishop of Lincoln, and Roger Bacon
(d. 1292). Grosseteste was convinced that light held
the key to an understanding not only of the natural
world but also of the divine and redemptive activity.
Meanwhile, Bacon attempted to establish the mathematical
tradition in optics and to reconcile it with the philosophical
tradition of Aristotle.
The problematic issues around the science of optics
were not resolved during this time but would continue
to challenge scholars for the next 400 years. Part of
this reason is that the optical researcher neglected
to experiment but rather focused on the literary and
intellectual issues at hand.
Regardless of their lack of experimentation, the knowledge
of optics would directly contribute to the invention
of eyeglasses. Roger Bacon was one scholar who began
to focus on magnifying lenses, whereas, his peer, Grosseteste
remained intrigued with the rules of refraction. As
Bacon notes: [Refer to quote #1]
There is no exact date as to when eyeglasses were made,
however, a sermon given by Giordano of Pisa in 1306
lends evidence that they were probably conceived in
1286, as he states: [Refer to quote #2]. All references
that I have provided thus far are to converging lenses;
it wasn’t until a letter written in 1451 that
showed proof to the making of diverging lenses. Eyeglasses
were an extremely important discovery as they doubled
the working life of skilled craftsmen. Lenses in general
would lead to such inventions as the telescope, microscope,
micrometer, and other fine instrument that would change
the face of various sciences like Astrology, Biology
etcetera.
Magnetic Compass:
The magnetic compass has been known and used since the
late twelfth century. It is not known exactly where
it originated, sources seem to believe that it came
from the port of Amalfi, Italy, which shipped magnetic
ores from the mines of Elba. The earliest account that
mentions the use of a compass is in 1187 by an English
scholar, Alexander Neckham who was traveling back from
South France. Here he states: [Refer to quote #3]. Another
early reference of the compass comes from Guiot of Provins
who wrote in his La Bible Guyot (1206): [Refer to quote
#4].
In the late thirteenth century a document written by
Pierre Perelin described a rendition of the compass
that was now encased in a compass box with a transparent
cover and had pivots placed above and below a vertical
arbor for the needle. The arbor having a traverse arm
of nonmagnetic metal such as brass were placed at right
angles and pointing east-west when the needle pointed
north-south. At the turn of the century a compass card
(or wind rose) was created and was typically divided
into eight equal sectors. It was common for the east
point to be marked by a cross that indicated the direction
to the Holy Land, while the other points were indicated
by the letters of the Frankish or Italian names of the
appropriated winds.
As accurate as the compass seemed at the time, it was
soon discovered that the needle did not point to true
north (it was between north and northeast). Compass
makers in the second half of the fourteenth century
began to angle the compass card in order to compensate
for the variation. The application of the wind rose
to the compass had an important effect on sea travel
as it enabled the mariner to know the direction of his
course and to delineate with greater accuracy the coastal
outlines of routes previously traveled.
Mechanical Clocks:
Prior to the invention of the mechanical clock escapement,
Western societies’ timekeeping relied solely on
sundials and water clocks (which was basically a ratchet
and pawl mechanism that acted as an internal regulator).
Several problems occurred with the water clock escapement
such as, the water freezing or evaporating, as well
as, clogging of their apertures by minerals from hard
water.
There have been accounts as early as 1283 in England
with reference to horological devices being erected
in churches. However, these ‘clocks’ consisted
of simple bell ringing devices to indicate times of
prayer rather than regulated clockwork in the sense
that we presently know it. It has not been confirmed
whether the mechanical clock escapement originated in
Europe or was transmitted from the Orient via European
traders during the last quarter of the thirteenth century.
What it known is that the first public clock in Europe
(with a twenty-four hour time display) was erected in
the tower of the Church of S. Eustorgio in Milan by
1309.
Other time telling devices that were more compact and
suitable for traveling were being created as early as
1377, as King Charles V of France was reported to have
owned an orloge portative.
With an absolute measure of time, improved accuracy
led to precision instruments (i.e. the astrolabe), which
changed the way scientists charted the stars. Moreover,
businesses could now open at uniform times creating
a much more efficient marketplace, and in turn led to
the growth of towns and cities.
Bibliography
Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages.
American Council of Learned Sciences. Volume 3,
7, 8, 9. Charles Scribner’s Sons. New York. 1987.
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Magic
by Lily Gama
Scope
In the Middle Ages, magic was an elusive
term; what one person believed to be magic another believed
to be religion. Yet, many feared magic. The church,
took over some pagan festivals and practices in hopes
of converting people. For example, the pagan festival
of the night of the dead become Hallow’s Eve and
All Saints day. However, the church never condoned magic;
it was associated with the devil.
Magic derived from ancient pagan religions, folk traditions,
and Greco-Roman sources. Ancient civilizations such
as Egypt, Greece and Rome all contributed something
to magic.
Magic and Medicine
Magic was also used in medicine; people,
such as midwives and physicians would turn to magic
to provide them with remedies. Many also tried to understand
illness according to the heavenly bodies. The preparation
of medicines often involved taboos, sympathetic magic,
and astrology. When an unknown disease appeared people
often blamed witchcraft, yet many also resorted to herbs
and magical potions to cure these diseases.
Magic and Women
In the Middle Ages, it was believed that
women were more prone to witchcraft because they were
regarded as the weaker sex and feebler in mind and body.
Women who were aggressive and deviated from societal
norms would be accused of witchcraft, Women did not
have the advantages of men and therefore it was believed
that they had the most to gain from magic. Women living
in the countryside were more likely to be deemed a witch.
Unmarried women and widows were regarded as even more
vulnerable because they did not have a husband to protect
them. However, the person most accused of using witchcraft
was older women living in villages who had a reputation
as being a healer. A woman was considered a witch if
she would cause harm or injury to animal and people.
Those women who were believed to be using witchcraft
were making a pact with the devil, and doing the devil’s
bidding.
Gossip in small villages would plague
a women’s reputation. When a women would scold
or threaten an individual and consequently that person
fell ill then the woman would be considered a witch.
Alchemy
Alchemy was introduced to Europe during
the time of the Crusades. The first alchemist texts
were translated from Arabic to Latin. Alchemist based
their practices from Aristotle’s theories of earth,
air, water, and fire as well as relating it to the four
humors which were phlegm, blood, bile and black bile.
They believed that a healthy individual had the four
humors in a balanced ratio and therefore illnesses would
be a result of a deficiency of one or more of the elements.
Works Cited:
Jeffery Burton Russell, Witchcraft
in the Middle Ages. (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1972), p. 45.
Merry E. Wiesner, Women and Gender
in Early Modern Europe. Second Edition, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2000) p. 270.
Ibid, p. 265.
Link: Social
History
Link: Women
in Science
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La Vieille
by Michelle Ou
One of the Wife of Bath’s literary antecedents
was La Vieille (the Old Woman) from Jean de Meun’s
contribution to The Romance of the Rose. The
model for Chaucer’s oft-married pilgrim is a courtesan
who has learned the game of love, not in school where
they teach the theory, but by practice. Her years of
practical experience have made her wiser, and as a self-professed
expert, she takes it upon herself to teach the young
and green, for, as she firmly believes, it is but right
to share her knowledge with youth.
The recipient of her lesson is Fair Welcome, a young
man imprisoned in a tower by Jealousy, with the Lover
despondently trapped outside. After being accosted by
False Seeming, Constrained Abstinence, Courtesy, and
Largesse, the Old Woman agrees to let Fair Welcome see
the Lover, but not before urging him to learn from her
mistakes.
For the Old Woman, experience has not been obtained
without pain. She reminisces about the beauty she possessed
in her youth and the ability she once had to make men
skip, now "sighing and weeping" when she sees
her ravaged face and wrinkles. In her youth she was
young and beautiful, silly and irresponsible, deceiving
many men, but being herself deceived as well. All at
once it was too late, and her youth was left behind
her. She is shamed when she realizes that men no longer
want her, and even those who loved her in her youth
call her a "wrinkled crone" and worse. She
frets over the gifts that she no longer receives from
suitors, deciding the only way to avenge herself is
to teach her doctrine. Being young, Fair Welcome has
much to gain from her teachings, because memory retains
best what is learned in youth.
The Old Woman's Advice
Although her advice is addressed to a young man, it
is more appropriate for a young girl. The Old Woman
advises:
Never be generous: a woman should bestow her heart
in several places, and never just one, selling it dearly
to the highest bidder (anyone who gets it should not
feel as though he has won a bargain). It is folly to
give unless the gift is small and intended to be used
as bait. A poor man is good for nothing, and visitors
who are just passing through should be avoided, (but
she should not refuse money or jewels if the visitor
offers). A wise man would be suspicious of any gift
from a woman, because they are all traps intended to
deceive - generosity is a sin against woman's nature
(this does not matter much to the Old Woman because
so few women are in the habit of giving).
A woman should frequent rich men if they are not mean
or miserly, and if she is skilled at fleecing them.
Any woman who does not fleece her lover of everything
he has is mad. If the lover realizes that he has given
more than he should, the woman should beg him to make
her a loan, but she should never repay any of it.
If there are a thousand men, each of them must be told
that they alone will have the rose (consummation) and
that no one else will ever have a share. The woman must
not be concerned about perjuring herself because God
will pardon her. A woman should strive to be like a
wolf about to steal a sheep – to avoid failure
she must attack a thousand instead of just one, spreading
her nets everywhere to ensnare.
Anyone who believes the oaths of lovers is a fool,
because their hearts are fickle and unreliable, and
promises are broken.
A woman who concentrates her efforts on just one man
deserves suffering (e.g., Dido and Aeneas, Phyllis and
Demophoön, and Medea and Jason). Men are deceitful
traitors, so women should deceive them as well. Women
ought to have several lovers and bring great suffering
on all of them. To attain lovers, she might alter her
appearance, learn to laugh, and practise proper etiquette
– she must cover any fault unless she is a fool.
A woman must not wait too long and must seek love while
she still has youth on her side. Once old age hits,
she loses the opportunity so she must pick love's fruit
while in her prime. She must not lead too cloistered
a life and must be seen in society, because her beauty
is less sought after if nobody knows about it.
In the bedroom, the woman should feign jealousy to make
false compliment to her lover. A man who is jealous
is afflicted with torment because he will never again
have possession of her. During sex, men and women should
both experience pleasure, climaxing together, without
abandoning one another. If a woman feels no pleasure,
she should pretend to enjoy it and "fake it"
so that he will imagine she is happy when she doesn't
actually care.
Women are born free -– like caged birds they
naturally seek paths to freedom.
The Old Woman's Mistakes
The Old Woman gave the gifts she received to those she
loved better. Everything she had was given to a scoundrel
who put her to shame, but whom she loved best. He had
nothing but contempt for her, called her a common whore.
However badly he treated her (beating, dragging, bruising)
though, he would beg her forgiveness and make up before
sex. She admits that he had her "at the end of
a rope" because he was so good in bed. The gifts
she gave to him were used to lead a life of debauchery,
and he never learned a trade since she supported him
financially. Eventually he was left begging for food
and she had been reduced to poverty, her looks now faded
with age.
The final bit of advice that she imparts, is to tell
Fair Welcome to behave sensibly and to heed what she
has taught because she will feel the lack of gifts when
he is stricken with old age
Works consulted:
Jean de Meun. The Romance of the Rose. Trans.
Frances Horgan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Bartlett J. Whiting. Sources and Analogues of Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales. Eds. W.F. Bryan and Germaine
Dempster. Chicago: Chicago : University of Chicago Press,
1941.
http://www.wwnorton.com/nael/nto/middle/estates/rosefrm.htm
Marie de France
by Janice Evans
Marie de France is the earliest identified French female
poet. Her identity is obscure, as most poetic writing
in her time, especially that of female authors, was
written anonymously. Yet she did state a desire to be
remembered, as she signed her Fables with one of our
only indications to her identity: "I shall name
myself in order to be remembered: My name is Marie and
I am from France" (Fables, epilogue, II.3-4). She
also names herself in her other major works, the Lais,
and The Purgatory of St. Patrick. These stories have
influenced English romances, including some of Chaucer’s
Canterbury Tales.
It has been determined that Marie was probably born
in either Normandy or Ile-de-France, but was writing
in England in the second half of the 12th Century. She
was widely educated and knew Latin, English, and French.
She wrote in a form of language called ‘Anglo-Norman’,
which was a dialect of the aristocracy in England and
Northern France. Her writing shows that she was familiar
with contemporary vernacular literature and classical
works such as those of Ovid.
It is assumed that she was of noble birth, and spent
time in England’s royal court. The most probable
identification of this Marie is the abbess of Shaftesbury,
an aristocratic nun living in England from 1181 to 1216.
It has also been suggested that she was the illegitimate
daughter of Geoffery IV of Anjou, half sister of Henry
II of England.
The Ysopet
The Ysopet is a collection of 103 fables that are
a retelling of Aesop’s Fables, from a version
translated by King Alfred into English from Latin. They
are simple, often comical stories with strong morals.
Some of the genre of fabliau, which began in France,
and involve stereotypical characters like the cuckolded
husband, the cheating wife, her lover, etc.
The Purgatory of St. Patrick
This is a moral tale that is re-written from a Latin
narrative. It tells of the adventures of an Irish Knight
who descends into a cavern where he witnesses the torments
of the sinners and the happiness of the just, in atonement
for his sins.
The Lais of Marie de France
Lais are a form of long poetry in rhymed stanzas of
six to sixteen lines, with four to eight syllables per
line and often set in music. These were very popular
in Northern France. Most of the stories focus on legends
that she heard through oral tradition, passed down from
Old Breton legends. Brittany was located on the North-Western
French peninsula, beside the old provinces of Normandy
and Anjou. These tales originated in the 5th to 11th
Centuries.
The Lais of Marie date from between 1160 and
1189. Her style has been described as "simple and
graceful" with "clear and concise narrative".
They were very popular, and were translated into other
languages including Norweigan in the Middle Ages. The
tales are dedicated; "In your honour, noble king,
you who are so worthy and courtly, you to whom all joy
pays homage and in whose heart all true virtue has taken
root, did I set myself to assemble lays, to compose
and to relate them in rhyme" (The Lais of Marie
de France, Prologue). It is assumed that this "noble
king" was King Henry II of England.
The stories use Celtic and English places and personal
names. Marie swears that she tells the stories as the
Bretons preserved them and that they are based in fact.
The stories can be described as romantic verse novelettes,
and are written in octosyllabic couplets. They deal
greatly with types of love, from physical to transcendental
emotions. The many sides of love are explored ranging
from happy, to unfortunate, to wise, to foolish, to
criminal as motivating forces in the characters. For
the most part, the plots tell the adventures of brave
Breton knights, acting for the sake of their ladies.
The traditions of Courtly love and culture of Marie’s
time were incorporated into the older tales. She also
deals more fairly and sympathetically with her female
characters than most male contemporaries.
The lais often involve elements of the supernatural,
and faeries from Celtic mythology. Realistic and unrealistic
elements co-exist, such as in the typical story of Bisclavret
where the title character is a werewolf. Marie also
uses symbols to deepen the meaning of the stories such
as in Guigemar, where there the main character refuses
to marry and is wounded in the groin by a white deer.
The white deer later comes to represent his ladylove,
who is the only one who can heal the wound as she completes
his heart.
The Story of Lanval
(Synopsis. Entire English translation of the Lais
is available online at
http://web.english.ufl.edu/exemplaria/intro.html)
King Arthur gives rich gifts of wives and land to all
of his Knights, except that he forgets about one chivalrous
Kinght, Lanval. He is entirely alone in this land, as
the other Knights are jealous of his qualities and his
family is far away, so he has no one to stand up on
his behalf and is too humble to question the King’s
decision.
One day he goes out to a stream and is approached by
two beautiful damsels who ask Lanval to go with them
to their lady’s tent. The tent is decorated more
expensively than humanly possible and the lady is idyllically
beautiful.
The lady addresses Lanval by name and states that she
came from her land to see him and offers him wealth
to exceed that of a king if he proves himself worthy.
He swears his love to her and the lady promises to give
him magical wealth that can never be depleated in order
for him to follow his instinctive generosity. She also
says that she will come to him when he likes, but that
only he will see her, but if he reveals her secret he
will never have her. Lanval returns to his realm and
finds that all of this comes true.
One day Lanval is called upon by Arthur’s Queen
(notably not named Guenivere here) who offers her love.
Lanval refuses, saying that he is too loyal to the king.
The Queen insinuates that Lanval is homosexual, and
Lanval inadvertently reveals that he is in love with
a woman more beautiful that the Queen. The Queen is
insulted and tells Arthur that Lanval had humiliated
her because she refused him her love. The King arrests
Lanval, but the only punishment that Lanval feels is
that from the estrangement from his lady, after he revealed
her existence.
When the date of Lanval’s trial comes the barons
decide that the only way to decide who is at fault is
to bring Lanval’s lady before the court so they
can judge if she is in fact more worthy than the Queen,
therefore proving that Lanval told the truth. Lanval
believes that there is no way that his lady will come,
but just as the court is about to pass judgement, two
servants of his lady arrive, then two more and the court
agrees that they are more lovely than the queen. Finally
the lady arrives, and it is only hear that her beauty
is fully described to the reader. Lanval acknowledges
that it is his lady and prays that she will forgive
him. She tells everyone that Lanval told the truth,
and Arthur acquits him. The lady then begins to leave
and Lanval leaps onto her horse, choosing to leave his
land behind and go with her to Avalon. He was never
heard from again.
Examples of themes that are exemplified in Lanval
and which recur throughout the Lais:
In Lanval the Chivalric world is presented with both
positive characteristics like Arthur’s noble rewarding
of knights for bravery along with negative characteristics
like women being treated like property to be given away
by the king, despair of knights once their money runs
out and others abandon them and unrighteous judicial
process
The women presented are very strong. The queen is able
to manipulate Arthur and his whole court when she is
rejected and the faerie, with more power and money than
Arthur, saves Lanval.
This story has been questioned as to whether it was
originally an Arthurian tale because of the uncharacteristic
actions of the king and Queen. It is likely that the
characters of Arthur and Guinevere were added later
to enhance interest based on the popularity of these
legends.
Women and Work
by Sandy Sun
Historically, medieval data was easy to misinterpret
because what remains has been selectively preserved,
and some scholars inadvertently or intentionally distorted
historical record. Antifeminist treatises describing
the worthlessness of women are often interpreted as
a reflection of the medieval woman’s actual life.
However, these texts were primarily composed by clerics
to promote celibacy and sexual continence among clergy.
Little information was recorded about the work medieval
women were employed to do outside of the medieval household.
As it will be shown, the medieval world was not entirely
dominated by men. Historians have discovered that women
did have a significant impact in the medieval working
world. This information broke ground 10 or so years
ago. The impetus for this renewed interest comes from
the growth of the women’s movement in the late
1970s and the development of a feminist analysis. Medieval
women were very similar to the women of today, looking
out for the interests of her family and establishing
her place in society.
The shortage of labour after 1348 encouraged the hiring
of female workers; this became an exceptional period
for women in which an acute labour shortage served to
enhance the value of female labour. The statute of labourers
1351 allowed women to become an essential part of the
labour force after the Black Plague. For the first time,
women were not confined to secondary tasks, but were
involved in reaping crops and were highly mobile and
independent labourers free from familial restrictions.
In fact some towns actually had more women residents
then men; all looking for work and recovery after the
Black Plague. Most women practiced more than one trade
and their employment tended to be intermittent; therefore
women tended to be in less specialized trades such as
brewing whereas men worked in specialized trades, such
as baking. There were female apprentices, but there
was no female guild to record them. As in the 21st century,
medieval women earned less than men and took up tasks
the male neglected to do. Medieval women found success
in the fields of fabrics, foods and service.
Women laboured in sheepfolds, on silk farms, and in
silver mines to create elaborate embroidered wool and
silk-velvet capes. Women dominated the cloth trade in
Europe and occasionally monopolised the entire industry.
Thousands of women worked as spinners, spinning fleece
into thread or yarn. Spinners were always in demand,
and spinning was an activity that was easily integrated
with other routines. There were a large number of women
who were apprentices in silk making; silk making was
a craft exclusive to women and were responsible for
weaving silk into fabric or blending it with wool for
tapestries and rugs. A single woman was able to support
herself by taking on several jobs in the cloth trade.
Drinking water was regarded to be unhealthy so there
was a high demand for ale. Brewing was a job a woman
can get and easily integrate it with her other activities.
Although brewing was laborious and time-consuming, it
could be fitted in around other household duties; it
required no regular commitment. Many women brewed according
to their financial need. The actual number of women
brewers is unclear because, by law, they had to register
under the husband’s name regardless of who was
the actual brewer. Women lost out when beer took over
ale; beer could be kept longer, so it was possible to
make large quantities of it.
Women as young as 12 started service work. Starting
at such a young age made them vulnerable to both financial
and sexual exploitation from their employers. Many women
were actually tricked into prostitution instead of the
job of being a live-in servant. Being a live-in servant
was common and was seen as an acceptable occupation
between adolescence and marriage. They were provided
with food and lodging, but were very dependent on the
behaviour and good-will of their master or mistress.
Single women unable to find regular full-time employment,
they could end up in prostitution. In the times of necessity,
such as when the demand for spinning collapsed, a young
woman could pick up customers in the street, or in a
tavern, and take them back to her lodging. For such
women prostitution provided a casual and occasional
source of income and they dropped in and out of it as
the need arouse. For a few women, however, prostitution
became a full time occupation. In some instances a woman
could have been seduced and then abandoned after she
became pregnant. If she had no immediate family around
her to take care of her and her child, she would have
very few options open to her.
Young single women and older widows enjoyed greater
freedom in the workforce because they had fewer household
responsibilities and obligations, and their legal, economic
and social position equalled men. Single women had difficulty
raising the money needed to become a brewer, and brewing
was an occupation that was usually acquired later in
life. Older widows were able to become brewers because
they had the capital necessary to start their business
and most chose to never remarry (she enjoyed more rights).
A married woman can have her own business but she had
to register all she brewed under her husband’s
name, irrespective of who was the actual brewer. Her
husband often answered questions for the wife’s
brewing activities – indicating the legal subordination
of women. A woman’s identity was still tied to
her husband’s.
However, the married woman can go out on her own under
the medieval laws recognizing the "Femme Sole",
dating back to the 13th Century. A "Femme Sole"
was an independent businesswoman or craftswoman responsible
by law for her own professional practice, purchase,
profits and business debts independent from her husband.
A married woman would do this to legally protect her
business from her husband and her greedy relatives.
If her business was more successful than her husband,
the children would take her name. For example, the family
name given to a woman who was in the business of cloth
trade was Webster; Weaver or Webber if the business
was the father’s. A woman who was a breadmaker
was called Baxter; Baker if the business was his. The
application of names according to the mother’s
occupation was called matronymics. Matronymics evolved
because the family identifying themselves by their mother’s
work symbolized her significant economic function. Her
fame in the market might have been easier to identify
than her husband’s because she did what she did
better than he did what he did. More importantly, matronymics
evolved because her work was honoured while his was
not.
Although women made a considerable contribution to the
medieval economy, they did not enjoy any public, legitimated
authority. They were forbidden from serving on local
juries and were never elected to parliament, local offices
and the military. Although women were brewers, they
were forbidden from becoming ale-tasters. The only control
women had over men were of domestic matters. But a medieval
woman with money was able to enjoy her success and her
new-found power. One such woman – although not
a representation of all medieval women - was Margery
Kempe, the Mayor of Lynn’s daughter. Her attempt
to start her own brewery failed but this doesn’t
give her reason to behave as a woman whose ventures
in any way implicate her husband’s: she takes
care of his and her debts. She made an agreement with
her husband that she pays for his bills if he releases
her from the marriage debt, and the obligation to have
sex. Before her pilgrimage to Jerusalem she invites
all her husband’s debtors to come and settle with
her. It is likely Margery was able to do this because
of her inheritance from her dad. She very much resembles
the financially independent woman of the 21st century.
Sources:
Cosman, Madeleine Pelner. Women at Work in Medieval
Europe. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2000.
Goldberg, P.J.P. Woman is a Worthy Wight. Wolfeboro
Falls: Alan Sutton Publishing Limited, 1992.
Leyser, Henrietta. Medieval Women: A Social History
of Women in England 450-1500. New York, St. Martin’s
Press, 1995.
Mate, Mavis E., Daughters, Wives and Widows after
the Black Death. Rochester: The Boydell Press,
1998.
Medicine in the Middle Ages
By Michael Bacinello
Medicine in the Middle Ages was at best a little understood
and risky business. Germs had yet to be discovered and
the link between sanitary conditions and heath had yet
to be made. As a result sanitary conditions in most
towns and villages were extremely poor. People would
often live indoors alongside their animals and livestock,
and garbage and feces would have been simply dumped
outside ones home or along the roadside. The result
of these poor sanitary conditions was that diseases
were commonplace and what would now be considered easily
treatable illnesses were potentially deadly.
Many myths existed in the Middle Ages concerning the
spread of disease, namely that disease could be spread
through bad odors. As such there was a great concern
for things which smelled. There is even one humors record
from the borough court proceedings of Norwich England
from roughly 1280-1300, of one Roger Benjamin who is
recorded twice, once for "setting a much heap in
the kings highway, in which he has buried the offal
of beasts, whereby the air is abominably poisoned, fined
2 shillings,"(Goering, Pg.7) and again "Of
the same Roger because he has set a pigsty in the king’s
highway, fined 12 dinars." (Goering, Pg.7) Mint
leaves were thought to "restore bad air" and
by doing so cure problems resulting from bad odors.
There was a strong connection between the body, spirituality,
and more arcane arts during the Middle Ages. Physical
ailments were thought the result of sin, and of an impure
soul. As such people often sought to cure themselves
of disease through prayer, meditation, or pilgrimages
to holy places. The body was viewed as a part of the
universe, a concept derived from the Greeks and Romans.
Four humors, or body fluids were directly related to
the four elements: fire=yellow bile or choler; water=phlegm;
earth=black bile; air=blood. These four humors had to
be balanced. Too much of one was thought to cause a
change in personality--for example, too much black bile
could create melancholy. A common way to restore the
bodies humors should they become unbalanced, was bloodletting.
Where a patients veins were opened up and he was allowed
to bleed for a time. Early surgery such as this was
often performed by the town barber without the use of
anesthetic. In fact if you’ve ever seen the red
and white barber poles, the white stands for water,
the red for blood, a holdover from the days when barbers
were also surgeons. Natural functions, such as sneezing,
were also thought to be the best way of maintaining
health. When there was a build-up of any one humor,
or body fluid, it could be disposed of through sweat,
tears, feces, or urine. When these natural systems broke
down, illness occurred. Medieval doctors stressed prevention,
exercise, a good diet, and a good environment. One of
the best diagnostic tools was uroscopy, in which the
color of the patient's urine was examined to determine
the treatment. Other diagnostic aids included taking
the pulse and collecting blood samples. Treatments ranged
from administering laxatives and diuretics to fumigation,
cauterization, and the taking of hot baths and/or herbs.
Leprosy was a major cause of panic and fear in the
Middle Ages, and a widespread disease. France alone
in the year 1300 had 2000 leper colonies, including
several in the vicinity of Troyes. There was no cure
for leprosy and as a result the leper was sentenced
to be separated from the rest of the town and sent to
a leper colony. There was in place an involved ceremony
for casting out a leper. The leper is first taken to
the church and the mass for the dead is performed in
his honor, he is then given a shroud a pair of castanets,
a pair of gloves, and a bread basket, and the final
ceremony is said. The priest says to him. "I forbid
you ever to enter a church or monastery, a mill, a bakery,
a market, or any place where there is an assemblage
of people. I forbid you to quite your house without
your leper’s costume or castanets, I forbid you
bathe yourself or your possessions in stream or fountain
or spring. I forbid you have commerce with any woman
except her whom you have married in the Holy Church.
I forbid you if anyone speaks to you on the road to
answer till you have placed yourself below the wind."
(Gies and Gies, Pg. 288) Then the leper is left at the
leper colony to live out his life.
Medicine in the middle ages was not available to everyone.
Often professional doctors only practiced in large cities
or at court. Doctors then as now often earned large
sums of money for their work, and charged based on the
patients wealth. A rich mans illness would command a
much high price than a poor mans and treating the king
or queen commanded a huge price. One medical text instructs
the doctor, "when the patient is nearly well, address
the head of the family or nearest relative thus: God
almighty having deigned by our aid to restore him who
you asked us to visit, we pray that he will maintain
his health, and that you will now give us an honorable
dismissal." (Gies and Gies, Pg.286) As a result
most commoners living in towns and villages would not
rely on the services of doctors, but on the diagnostic
skills of lay people like themselves. There are records
of townsfolk with no medical training at al making highly
complex medical diagnosis and suggesting treatments
including surgery. Despite this not all medieval medicine
was a failure, there are instances where surgery was
successful in curing things like, breast cancer, hemorrhoids,
gangrene, and cataracts.
Perhaps the greatest contribution to medicine of the
medieval age, was the hospital, which was developed
during this time. At the time they were alongside abbey’s
and monasteries places of Christian charity. Run by
priest and nuns who cared for the sick. Townsfolk and
commoners would often donate goods, money, and used
clothing to the hospital. In the hospital contagious
people and critically sick people would be isolated
as is done in modern hospitals, also a major medical
advance of the middle ages.
In relating this to Chaucer we see in the General Prologue
that the physician is one who knows all about the humors,
as well as a great deal about astrology, as the position
of the stars often affected health as well as the time
surgery could be performed, planets were thought to
preside over different parts of the body, and numerology
provided a complicated guide to charting the course
of an illness. There is also mention of his love of
gold and money and it seems fairly common for doctors
to be thought of as cheating patients and families out
of money or charging exorbitant sums for surgery. There
are many records in medical training manuals which give
the doctors methods to appear that they are practicing
good medicine when in fact they have done nothing of
the sort. For example, one book suggests: "When
you go to a patient always try to do something new every
day, lest they say you are at nothing but books. If
you unfortunately visit a patient and find him dead,
and they ask why you came, say that you knew he would
die that night, but wanted to know the hour in which
he would die." (Gies and Gies, pg. 286)
Clearly medicine in the middle ages was at best an
emerging science, based as much on speculation and greed
as on actual science, but the Middle Ages also laid
the foundation for the type of institutes which would
practice modern medicine and foster healthcare world
wide.
Works Cited
1. Gies, Frances, Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval
Times, Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, New
York, 1990.
2. Goering, J. Borough Court Proceedings: Norwich
England 1280-1300, reprinted in History 220Y reader,
1999.
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